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At 10,186,624 km², France has the second-largest maritime area in the world, after the United States (11,351,000 km²) and ahead of Australia (9,025,053) and Russia (7,566,673), when our territorial sea and our 9.63 million km² exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are added together. According to geographer Jean-Benoît Bouron from the École Normale Supérieure in Lyon, "an EEZ is a maritime or oceanic area located between sovereign waters (mainly the territorial sea) and the high seas, over which a coastal State (or sometimes several States) has exclusive rights to exploit resources".
This surface area, calculated by the French Navy's Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service (SHOM) under the terms of the United Nations Convention of Montego Bay (1982), raises a number of geopolitical issues, especially as it does not always correlate with the land shelf of each State: for example, France has an EEZ comparable to those of the United States and Australia, whereas its shelf is three times smaller, and even five times smaller than that of Russia.
To decipher these issues, IHEDN interviewed Virginie Saliou, a doctor of political science, reserve frigate captain and researcher at the Institut de recherche stratégique de l'École militaire (IRSEM), specialising in maritime governance, the maritimisation of the world and securing maritime spaces, and Vice-Admiral (in 2e section) Jean Hausermann, head of the maritime issues and strategies major at the IHEDN national session and, in particular, former senior commander of the armed forces in the French West Indies and commander of the maritime zone. Interview with Jean Hausermann.
WHAT ARE THE MAIN SECURITY AND DEFENCE CHALLENGES POSED BY THE VASTNESS OF THE FRENCH EEA?
Virginie Saliou : In accordance with the law established by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in Montego Bay, which France ratified in 1996, our country has sovereign rights and jurisdiction in an area known as the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). In practical terms, these rights mainly concern the exploitation and protection of the resources of the water column, the seabed and the subsoil within a limit of 200 nautical miles from the baseline. France has 9.63 million km² of exclusive economic zone out of its 10.9 million km² of maritime space (including the extension of the continental shelf).
Securing the French EEZ therefore involves protecting these resources from pillage and illegal removal, whether in the area of fisheries, marine genetic resources or critical minerals. The protection of resources here is taken in a broader sense, since the coastal State has rights, for example, to combat polluting vessels that impact on the marine environment. The coastal State is also sovereign in the field of research and therefore prevents illegal oceanographic campaigns in its waters. Defending its EEZ therefore means protecting its resources by combating illegal activities and preserving its strategic potential through sound management of the marine environment.
Jean Hausermann : France has the second largest EEZ in the world, spread over all the oceans thanks to its overseas territories. This vast expanse of sea represents a major strategic asset, but also a colossal challenge in terms of security and defence. The first challenge in securing France's EEZ is that it is so geographically dispersed, because its waters are found in almost every ocean on the planet. They are threatened, on the one hand, by criminal activity - mainly illegal fishing and trafficking (drugs, arms, human beings) - and, on the other hand, by geopolitical pressures, particularly in the Pacific with the rise of China or by sovereignty disputes such as that of Madagascar over the Éparses Islands.
Finally, the environmental stakes are high, with fragile ecosystems and exceptional biodiversity in often vulnerable areas. To meet the challenges of the secularisation of its EEZ, France is relying on its military presence, a major surveillance effort and regional cooperation.
IN CONCRETE TERMS, HOW HOW DO THE VARIOUS REGAL ACTORS (NAVY, CUSTOMS, MARITIME GENDARMERIE...) WORK TOGETHER? CUSTOMS, MARITIME GENDARMERIE, ETC.)?
Jean Hausermann : The coordination between the various regal actors in overseas France is based on the Action de l'État en Mer (AEM) structure, adapted to the specific characteristics of overseas France. This interministerial coordination is led by the Government Delegate for State Action at Sea (DDG AEM - equivalent to the Maritime Prefect in mainland France), assisted by a naval officer, the Maritime Zone Commander. The DDG AEM is responsible for coordinating and synchronising the actions of the various departments with maritime and air resources: French Navy, Customs, Maritime Gendarmerie, Maritime Affairs, etc.
This coordination aims to guarantee sovereignty, security, environmental protection and the fight against illegal trafficking. While each administration has its own core business, they all contribute to all of the EMEA's missions. This versatility ensures maximum efficiency at a time when overseas resources are limited.
Virginie Saliou : To intervene at sea, France has an original and effective model, that of the AEM. France does not have a coastguard, but a "coastguard function". The aim of this system is to be able to use and coordinate all the resources of all the administrations acting at sea, through a single maritime authority - the maritime prefect.
However, the main administration with offshore resources to act in the EEZs is the French Navy. The Navy is dual-purpose, meaning that it is capable of carrying out both civilian and military or defence missions at sea. This capability is all the more relevant given that the French government has to act within what is known as a security continuum, with risks and threats increasingly linked: drug traffickers at sea or illegal fishermen are likely to open fire, a shipping accident may conceal a terrorist attack by sea, etc. The French government's response is therefore pragmatic, combining flexibility in the use of resources and speed in the chain of command.
HOW DO THE OVERSEAS TERRITORIES, WHICH MAKE UP ALMOST ALL OF THE FRENCH EEA, INFLUENCE NATIONAL DEFENCE STRATEGY?
Virginie Saliou : In 2015, France drew up a strategy for securing its maritime areas, which was revised in 2019. This document, drawn up by the Prime Minister's office with the help of all the ministries concerned, is of particular interest to the French overseas territories: 97% of France's maritime areas are in fact overseas. As a result, we are neighbours by sea with some thirty States around the world.
These territories are considerable assets, but they are also increasingly vulnerable areas insofar as, being extremely vast and often far from the mainland and from each other, their waters and resources are coveted by foreign powers and organised crime. The threats are varied: rising sea levels, illegal immigration, looting, drug trafficking.... French sovereignty forces and joint operations are deployed in the overseas territories. As part of the 2024-2030 military programming law, France recently strengthened its intervention and surveillance resources there.
The last National Strategic Review updated in 2025, reminds us that special attention must be paid to these territories for their own security and that of France as a whole. However, all the threats they face require a response and resources that are still often inadequate. What's more, the overseas territories are set to play a growing role in defence in the decades to come: 90% of these areas are located in the Indo-Pacific, in a zone where military tensions are crystallising.
At the same time, attacks on straits, such as in the Red Sea, have led commercial fleets to use high seas routes where islands, such as Reunion Island, now constitute strategic support points. In this context, the French overseas territories are both potential projection zones for the Armed Forces and strategic areas to be defended and protected.
Jean Hausermann : In a world marked by rising tensions (Sino-American confrontation in the Indo-Pacific, foreign interference, transnational crime, competition for natural resources), France's overseas territories are key watchdogs. They enable France to be a stakeholder and a neighbour to all the world's oceans. The overseas territories are therefore unique ways of understanding the specific features of the regions in which they are located. By 2030, France's defence strategy provides for :
- The reinforcement of military personnel overseas (almost 1,000 additional soldiers),
- Modernising equipment and command capabilities,
- Securing supplies in the event of conflict or logistical breakdown, to improve the resilience of our overseas territories.
Finally, France's military presence overseas means that response times can be reduced to almost anywhere in the world.
IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION TO EXPLOIT MARITIME RESOURCES, HOW IS FRANCE PROTECTING ITS ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INTERESTS WITHIN ITS EEA?
Jean Hausermann : France's strategic response to international competition for maritime resources is reflected in a permanent naval presence comprising patrol boats and surveillance frigates. It is regularly reinforced by deployments of maritime surveillance aircraft, large amphibious ships, first-rank frigates and even nuclear attack submarines. Occasionally, the naval air group and its aircraft carrier are deployed in the overseas EEZ to provide a strong deterrent presence. These deployments, whether permanent, regular or occasional, are supported by a network of naval bases in all the French overseas departments and territories.
This strategy of military presence is reinforced by a strategy of regional cooperation. This can take the form of partnerships with neighbouring countries or regional organisations such as ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations: Australia, India, etc.) for joint patrols and military exercises. Other examples include shared patrols with South Africa in the Southern Territories and active participation in multilateral forums to promote maritime security.
Finally, France is strengthening its maritime surveillance capabilities by deploying satellites, drones and coastal radars.
Virginie Saliou : France uses the law to defend its interests. Firstly, by regularly reminding its international partners of the principles of UNCLOS. Then by applying and enforcing this law at sea.
In 2013, for example, despite the remoteness of the area, the French Navy intercepted a Singaporean vessel in the middle of oil prospecting without any authorisation in the French EEZ around the Éparses islands. At the same time, the French government has embarked on a policy to protect the marine environment, exceeding global targets for the establishment of marine protected areas to reach 24% of protected maritime areas by 2025.
Finally, France promotes a policy of limiting the exploitation of marine resources, as can be seen, for example, in its policy to combat illegal fishing, particularly alongside its African partners, or more recently by taking a stance in favour of a ban on the exploitation of seabed mineral resources.
IN THE FACE OF NEW THREATS, SUCH AS GLOBAL WARMING AND RISING REGIONAL TENSIONS, WHAT CHANGES TO THE ZEE'S DEFENCE DOCTRINE ARE ENVISAGED OR NECESSARY?
Virginie Saliou : It is essential to strengthen our means of action at sea in order to better protect our maritime areas. This means investing in new ships, of course, but also in drones and the ability to monitor from space. These resources must obviously complement each other.
However, no state can act alone at sea. The key lies in thinking of the sea as the other space that it is, and not in projecting terrestrial logics onto the sea. The sea is not an enclosed space; it remains a passageway, for fish and people alike. Cooperation is therefore essential - with our international partners and the private sector - to preserve resources and continue to defend freedom of navigation.
At the same time, it seems inevitable that our defence will have to become more maritime-based, drawing on the strategic assets of our overseas territories.
Jean Hausermann : France is therefore taking up the challenge of protecting its EEZ by combining a military presence, international cooperation, technological innovation and active diplomacy. It is a strategy that is both defensive and proactive, aimed at safeguarding its interests while contributing to global stability.
It has chosen to strengthen its military presence, both in terms of numbers and quality, in response to the increase in international tensions and the scale of natural disasters, particularly cyclones. Climate change is leading to more violent and more frequent cyclones.
It is also strengthening the resilience of the overseas territories by building new infrastructures for storing and stationing forces. As for doctrine, it is evolving in the direction of greater mutual support between the overseas territories.
